Social Unrest, Political Disorder and the State Essay

Social Unrest, Political Disorder and the State - Essay Example Such simple arrangement came because of the separation which Ireland had because of its land area. Much the same as any composed wrongdoing gathering or a fear based oppressor gathering, the IRA has a technique for working in a various leveled way with selective enrollment and express standards (Mahan and O’Neil 1998, p.6) Although, IRA doesn't believe itself to be a sorted out criminal gathering in any capacity, neither as a mafia of any kind, however when investigated intently, it seems to have a verifiable foundation of being engaged with crimes and psychological warfare. Be that as it may, they have developed from just a country worker security gathering to a mystery society which continually tested against business as usual. As per Mackenzie, there are various plans which mystery social orders have, extending from otherworldly, moralistic, energetic, and political to crimes (Mackenzie 1967). The IRA has encountered a comparable procedure of advancement throughout the year s and worked in a relating way in every one of the cases according to conditions. Besides, the IRA shares authoritative attributes which befit just criminal business bunches with much center occupied towards their political objectives (Bell, 1997). For the motivations behind breaking down the IRA and its philosophy, ethnographical exploration strategy is esteemed to be generally proper. As per Hobsbawm’s perception (1969), in any persecuted society, there is consistently to be discovered a minority bunch which is happy to commit itself to opposing the norm. In that, a few people will pick constructive strategies and some will be slanted towards unlawful intends to accomplish a similar end. One element that hangs out in the IRA is that it was fundamentally framed to speak more loudly against persecuting states of the workers in Ireland and the serious extent of primitive practices to smother the majority There was enormous turmoil particularly after the mighty 1800 Act of Unio n was passed by Westminster to make United Kingdom, which wound up restricting Ireland under its standard. This is a huge bend at the purpose of which the worker security bunch was constrained to make political move (Toolis, 1995). As there expanded the quantity of workers ready to battle for the political reason they all had faith in, the requirement for progressively sorted out arrangement emerged and consequently, the IRA was framed. ‘The Whiteboys’ and ‘the Oakboys’ alongside ‘phoenix’ were a forerunner in Ireland for shaping such various leveled bunches for union and association with improved modernity. It turned into a sub-culture inside a sub-culture (Lambart, 2010). Something that gives them authority is their capacity to hoard viciousness in their particular networks. Generally, Ireland is known for its familial unit and fellowship, consequently the ascent of the IRA has its underlying foundations in such a foundation. The individuals who were out of any safe methods for work looked for cover in such associations for shared assurance (Collins, 1986). The usual way of doing things of the IRA relies upon the connection and fellowship organizes that it has created through rehearsing its hang on its locale. In the event that there is kept no check from the government’s side on their exercises, they spread their qualities and belief systems without any problem. Indeed, even there had been such lucky chronicled occasions for the IRA where their sub-culture has multiplied with evolving

Mere Christanity Essays - Social Philosophy, Political Philosophy

Negligible Christanity C.S. Lewis starts his book, ?Mere Christianity?, by presenting the Law of Right and Wrong or the Laws of Nature. This, be that as it may, emerges an inquiry. What is the Law of Nature? The Law of Nature is the realized contrast among good and bad. That is, keeps an eye on differentiation between what is correct and what's going on. ?This law was known as the Law of Nature since individuals imagined that everybody knew it and didn't should be educated it?(18). Lewis relates the law to how we treat others. We treat others the manner in which we need to be dealt with and in the event that they treat us inadequately consequently we become unsettled and irritated with them. He expresses that we become a general public of reasons when something turns out badly. He proceeds to state that we need to act with a specific goal in mind when in all actuality we do something contrary to what is correct or what's going on. We are people and people have basic impulses. We are on the whole equipped for utilizing our impulses to do right or wrong. Lewis utilizes a case of a suffocating man to demonstrate this point. At the point when one sees a man in a tough situation two wants or senses kick into play, to spare the man or overlook him on the grounds that the current circumstance could jeopardize you. In any case, there in another drive that says help the man. With this comes a contention of senses. Do you run and forget about it or do you bounce in and help. A great many people will help regardless of whether the circumstance will imperil their life. This is only one method of seeing good law. The privilege in a circumstance will for the most part consistently beat an inappropriate. ?Men should be unselfish, should be reasonable. Not that men are childish, nor that they like being unselfish, however they should be?(30). We are animals of propensity and rationale. Lewis accepts that the ethical law isn't instructed to us somewhat known by us instinctually. He likewise accepts that the law is genuine. The law is our practices in life by means of positive or negative. Lewis states, ?there is something well beyond the common realities of men's behavior?(30). This opens Lewis to accept that the common law is both alive and dynamic in keeps an eye on life today. Lewis proceeds to state that the law must be something above keeps an eye on conduct. He starts to relate this to the production of the world. He takes into tally the materialistic hypothesis of creation, that will be that issue has consistently existed and production of man occurred all of a sudden. The other view is the strict view. This view states, ?what is behind the universe is progressively similar to a psyche then it is whatever else we know?(32). Man needs to know who or what made the universe and if there is a power guiding it not to mention them. Lewis needs humankind to reexamine on the grounds that he feels that man is on an inappropriate street. He attempts to demonstrate this hypothesis by taking a gander at the current condition our reality is in today. He feels that individuals put stock in God however just as the Supreme Being behind the law. Lewis accepts that God is acceptable and like all great God can be hard and even risky. He accepts that solitary an individual can pardon and their great can be responded to from multiple points of view. We at last can decipher the result as fortunate or unfortunate. Great to our advantage and terrible to no ones win. Lewis additionally accepts that Christianity won't bode well to anybody until they understand that the Moral Law is genuine and the force that administers it is likewise genuine. To bode well we should quit mishandling the force and violating the law. Lewis begins Book II by talking about his thoughts on God and the significant divisions of confidence in God. He accepts that God is past all acceptable and insidious and that He is honest and all strong. To state that God is past all that is acceptable and insidious is called Pantheism. Polytheists accept that God is the universe and if the universe didn't exist neither would God. This contrasts from the Christian view that God made the universe.

Spring 2018

Dont Miss These Great Essay Collections from Winter/Spring 2018 I have a very promising batch of great essay collections from Winter/Spring 2018 for you! Below you will find collections by seasoned essayists such as Marilynne Robinson, Zadie Smith, and Sloane Crosley, as well as debut collections by writers such as Morgan Jerkins and Alice Bolin. There are a couple anthologies below as well as large group of single-author collections. The books include personal essays, lyric essays, and political essays; they offer essays on pop culture, travel, race, sexuality, literature, art, and so much more. Ive noted the publication dates below so you can keep an eye out for these. Take a lookâ€"youre bound to find something you like! This Will Be My Undoing: Living at the Intersection of black, female, and feminist in (white) america by Morgan Jerkins Morgan Jerkins writes about her life while at the same time telling usâ€"readers of all typesâ€"things we need to hear about our culture. Shes bracingly honest and full of great insights about what its like to be a black woman in America today. (January 30, Harper Perennial) Black Ink: Literary Legends on the Peril, Power, and Pleasure of reading and Writing by Stephanie Stokes Oliver, editor This collection brings together works by black authors from the past 250 years on the power of the written word. Authors include Frederick Douglass, Zora Neale Hurston, Maya Angelou, Toni Morrison, Roxane Gay, Colson Whitehead, and many more fabulous and important people. The book includes a foreword by Nikki Giovanni. It would make a great pick for Book Riots Read Harder Challenge Task #22, if you are participating. (January 30, Atria/37 Ink) Feel Free by Zadie Smith In my opinion, Zadie Smiths essays are as good as her fiction. Her last essay collection, Changing My Mind, was fabulous. Her new book is organized into five sectionsâ€"In the World, In the Audience, In the Gallery, On the Bookshelf, and Feel Freeâ€"and includes previously-published pieces and new work. Smith is a beautiful writer and her essays always make excellent company. (February 6, Penguin Press) I Am, I Am, I Am: Seventeen Brushes with death by Maggie OFarrell Here you will find essays on a theme: Maggie OFarrells close calls with death. She writes about muggings, near-drownings, a difficult childbirth, life-threatening illnesses, and more. Its a book that will make you contemplate vulnerability and uncertainty and get you to think more deeply about the meaning of life. (February 6, Knopf) Up Up, Down Down by Cheston Knapp Here is another collection of linked essays, this time about the authors coming of age and his grappling with questions of identity. Topics include wrestling, UFOs, faith, family, and more. Its a great book for those who enjoy personal essays that explore larger ideas. (February 6, Scribner) The Land Between two rivers: Writing in an age of refugees by Tom Sleigh Tom Sleigh is a poet and essayist who has worked as a journalist in war zones and refugee camps. Here, he describes his experiences on several tours in Africa and the Middle East. The essays describe the lives of refugees and explore how writing can address their experiences. This is a book that can help us think through the refugee experience and how art can help us understand and address it. (February 6, Graywolf Press) What Are We Doing Here by Marilynne Robinson This is one of the most anticipated books of the year by the Pulitzer Prize-winning author of Gilead. Here she returns to her usual topics: faith, politics, beauty, humanity, and our obligations to each other and to our communities. Robinson is, surely, a writer we all need right now. (February 20, Farrar, Straus and Giroux) Would You Rather: A Memoir of Growing up and coming out by Katie Heaney The subtitle says memoir, but this book is more like a memoir in essays on the subject of discovering ones sexuality and remaking ones life. Its Katie Heaneys story of coming out in her late 20s and exploring her new identity. This is her second collection of essays after her 2014 publication  Never Have I Ever. (March 6, Ballantine Books) Look Alive out there by Sloane Crosley Ten years ago, Sloane Crosley published her best-selling essay collection  I Was Told Thered Be Cake, and here she is with a new collection, which has the same wit, charm, and enjoyable observations on personal experiences and American culture. These are essays to gobble up, and the only bad thing is that you wont want the book to end. (April 3, MCD/Farrar, Straus and Giroux) See What Can Be Done by Lorrie Moore Lorrie Moore is known for her innovative and widely-influential fiction, and here she offers over 50 essays on literature, pop culture, politics, and more. Its a good book to pick up for Lorrie Moore fans but also for anyone who wants to read a great writers thoughts on culture. (April 3, Knopf) Betwixt and Between: Essays on the writing life by Jenny Boully This book is for fans of the lyric essay and those who want to think about writing and the creative life. Its also for fans of great writing. Known for her book  The Body: An Essay, Jenny Boully is an experimenter with genre, mixing essay, poetry, philosophy, and more. Here she explores not the craft of writing, but what it means to work creatively. (April 3, Coffee House Press) Beyond Measure by Rachel Z. Arndt In  Beyond Measure you will find essays that look closely at how we understand and value our lives. Topics include dating apps, commutes, ellipticals, and judo competitions. Look to this book for darkly funny investigations of the world around us. (April 10, Sarabande Books) How to Write an Autobiographical Novel by Alexander Chee Known as a novelist, Alexander Chee is publishing his first collection of nonfiction, including essays on the intersection of identity, art, and politics. This collection is easily one of the most anticipated nonfiction books of the year. Pick it up for the beautiful writing, the personal stories, and the insights into the world around us. (April 17, Mariner Books) Acid west by Joshua Wheeler Acid West is a debut collection of essays on the American West. Wheeler focuses on New Mexico, his home state, to explore American myth and identity. Topics include a UFO festival, the legacy of atomic testing, and American mythology from cowboys to space explorers. (April 17, MCD/FSG Originals) Not That Bad: Dispatches from rape Culture by Roxane Gay, Ed. This volume collects new and previously published pieces on rape, assault, and harassment. Contributors include Gabrielle Union, Ally Sheedy, Amy Jo Burns, Lyz Lenz, and more. This collection is a challenging and difficult read, and exactly what our culture needs right now. Its another great choice for the Read Harder Challenge Task #22. (May 1, Harper Perennial) Against Memoir: Complaints, Confessions Criticism by Michelle Tea Known for her novels and memoirs, Michelle Tea is now publishing her first collection of journalistic essays. The book is divided into sections called Art Music, Love Queerness, and Writing Life. She writes about herself and others, always with humor, insight, and truth. (May 8, Amethyst Editions) The Destiny Thief: Essays on Writing, Writers and life by Richard Russo Richard Russo is the Pulitzer Prize-winning author of nine novels, and here he has collected nine essays on the writing life. Topics include humor, friendship, and Russos experiences as a writer. (May 8, Knopf) Dead Girls: Essays on Surviving an American Obsession by Alice Bolin Here is a debut essay collection on the American obsession with dead girls. Alice Bolin looks at Joan Didion,  Twin Peaks, Britney Spears,  Serial, and much more to think about our ideas on death and the female body and how those ideas shapes our fiction and pop culture. (June 26, William Morrow Paperbacks) Are you a lover of essays and want more of them? Check out this list of 100 must-read essay collections.

Biography of Bessie Blount, American Inventor

Bessie Blount (November 24, 1914–December 30, 2009) was an American physical therapist, forensic scientist, and inventor. While working with injured soldiers after World War II, she developed a device that allowed amputees to feed themselves; it delivered one mouthful of food at a time to patients whenever they bit down on a tube. Griffin later invented a receptacle that was a simpler and smaller version of the same, designed to be worn around a patients neck. Fast Facts: Bessie Blount Known For: While working as a physical therapist, Blount invented assistive devices for amputees; she later made contributions to the field of forensic science.Also Known As: Bessie Blount GriffinBorn: November 24, 1914 in Hickory, VirginiaDied: December 30, 2009 in Newfield, New JerseyEducation: Panzer College  of Physical Education and Hygiene (now Montclair State University)Awards and Honors: Virginia Women in History Honoree Early Life Bessie Blount was born in Hickory, Virginia, on November 24, 1914. She received her primary education at Diggs Chapel Elementary School, an institution that served African-Americans. However, a lack of public resources forced her to end her education before she had completed middle school. Blounts family then moved from Virginia to New Jersey. There, Blount taught herself the material required to earn her GED. In Newark, she studied to be a nurse at Community Kennedy Memorial Hospital. She went on to study at the Panzer College of Physical Education (now Montclair State University) and became a certified physical therapist. Physical Therapy After finishing her training, Blount began working as a physical therapist at the Bronx Hospital in New York. Many of her patients were soldiers who had been wounded during World War II. Their injuries, in some cases, prevented them from performing basic tasks, and Blounts job was to help them learn new ways to do these things using their feet or teeth. Such work was not only physical rehabilitation; its goal was also to help veterans regain their independence and sense of control. Inventions Blounts patients faced numerous challenges, and one of the biggest was finding and developing new ways to eat on their own. For many amputees, this was especially difficult. To help them, Blount invented a device that delivered one bite of food at a time through a tube. Each bite was released when the patient bit down on the tube. This invention allowed amputees and other injured patients to eat without assistance from a nurse. Despite its usefulness, Blount was unable to successfully market her invention, and she found no support from the United States Veterans Administration. She later donated the patent rights to her self-feeding device to the French government. The French put the device to good use, making life much easier for many war veterans. Later, when asked why she gave away the device for free, Blount said she wasnt interested in money; she simply wanted to prove that black women were capable of more than [nursing] babies and [cleaning] toilets. Blount continued to search for new ways to improve the lives of her patients. Her next invention was a portable receptacle support, which hung around the neck and allowed patients to hold objects near their face. The device was designed to hold a cup or a bowl, from which patients could sip using a straw. In 1951, Blount officially received a patent for her self-feeding device; it was filed under her married name, Bessie Blount Griffin. In 1953, she became the first woman and the first African-American to appear on the television show The Big Idea, where she exhibited some of her inventions. While working as a physical therapist for Theodore Miller Edison, the son of inventor Thomas Edison, Blount developed a design for a disposable emesis basin (the receptacle used to collect bodily fluids and waste in hospitals). Blount used a combination of newspaper, flour, and water to produce a material similar to papier-mache. With this, she made her first disposable emesis basins, which would have saved hospital workers from having to clean and sanitize the stainless steel basins used at the time. Once again, Blount presented her invention to the Veterans Administration, but the group had no interest in her design. Blount patented the invention and sold the rights to a medical supplies company in Belgium instead. Her disposable emesis basin is still used in Belgian hospitals today. Forensic Science Blount eventually retired from physical therapy. In 1969, she began working as a forensic scientist, assisting law enforcement officers in New Jersey and Virginia. Her main role was to translate the academic findings of forensic science research into practical guidelines and tools for officers on the ground. Over the course of her career, she became interested in the relationship between handwriting and human health; Blount had observed that writing—a fine-motor skill—could be affected by different forms of disease, including dementia and Alzheimers. Her inquiries into this area led her to publish a groundbreaking paper on medical graphology. Soon Blount was in high demand for her expertise in this emerging field. During the 1970s, she assisted police departments across New Jersey and Virginia, and she even served for a time as a chief examiner. In 1977, she was invited to London to assist British police with handwriting analysis. Blount became the first African-American woman to work for Scotland Yard. Death Blount died in Newfield, New Jersey, on December 30, 2009. She was 95 years old. Legacy Blount made major contributions in both the medical and forensic science fields. She is best remembered for the assistive devices she invented as a physical therapist and for her innovative work in graphology. Sources Inventors and Inventions. Marshall Cavendish, 2008.McNeill, Leila. The Woman Who Made a Device to Help Disabled Veterans Feed Themselves-and Gave It Away for Free. Smithsonian Institution, 17 Oct. 2018.Morrison, Heather S. Inventors of Health and Medical Technology. Cavendish Square, 2016.Overlooked No More: Bessie Blount, Nurse, Wartime Inventor and Handwriting Expert.The New York Times, 28 Mar. 2019.

In electronics, an integrated circuit - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 16 Words: 4687 Downloads: 3 Date added: 2017/09/20 Category Advertising Essay Type Argumentative essay Level High school Tags: Development Essay Did you like this example? In electronics, an integrated circuit (also known as IC, microcircuit, microchip, silicon chip, or chip) is a miniaturized electronic circuit (consisting mainly of semiconductor devices, as well as passive components) that has been manufactured in the surface of a thin substrate of semiconductor material. Integrated circuits are used in almost all electronic equipment in use today and have revolutionized the world of electronics. A hybrid integrated circuit is a miniaturized electronic circuit constructed of individual semiconductor devices, as well as passive components, bonded to a substrate or circuit board. Contents | |[hide] | |1 Introduction | |2 Invention | |3 Generations | |3. 1 SSI, MSI and LSI | |3. 2 VLSI | |3. ULSI, WSI, SOC and 3D-IC | |4 Advances in integrated circuits | |5 Popularity of ICs | |6 Classification | |7 Manufacturing | |7. 1 Fabrication | |7. 2 Packaging | |7. Chip labeling and manufacture date | |8 Legal protection of semiconductor chip layouts | | 9 Other developments | |10 Silicon labelling and graffiti | |11 Key industrial and academic data | |11. 1 Notable ICs | |11. 2 Manufacturers | |11. VLSI conferences | |11. 4 VLSI journals | |12 See also | |13 References | |14 Further reading | |15 External links | Introduction [pic] [pic] Synthetic detail of an integrated circuit through four layers of planarized copper interconnect, down to the polysilicon (pink), wells (greyish), and substrate (green). Integrated circuits were made possible by experimental discoveries which showed that semiconductor devices could perform the functions of vacuum tubes and by mid-20th-century technology advancements in semiconductor device fabrication. The integration of large numbers of tiny transistors into a small chip was an enormous improvement over the manual assembly of circuits using electronic components. The integrated circuits mass production capability, reliability, and building-block approach to circuit design ensured the rapid adopt ion of standardized ICs in place of designs using discrete transistors. There are two main advantages of ICs over discrete circuits: cost and performance. Cost is low because the chips, with all their components, are printed as a unit by photolithography and not constructed as one transistor at a time. Furthermore, much less material is used to construct a circuit as a packaged IC die than as a discrete circuit. Performance is high since the components switch quickly and consume little power (compared to their discrete counterparts) because the components are small and close together. As of 2006, chip areas range from a few square millimeters to around 350  mm2, with up to 1 million transistors per mm2. [edit] Invention [pic] [pic] Jack Kilbys original integrated circuit The idea of the integrated circuit was conceived by a radar scientist working for the Royal Radar Establishment of the British Ministry of Defence, Geoffrey W. A. Dummer (1909–2002), who published it at the Symposium on Progress in Quality Electronic Components in Washington, D. C. on May 7, 1952. [1] He gave many symposia publicly to propagate his ideas. Dummer unsuccessfully attempted to build such a circuit in 1956. Jack Kilby recorded his initial ideas concerning the integrated circuit in July 1958 and successfully demonstrated the first working integrated circuit on September 12, 1958. [2] In his patent application of February 6, 1959, Kilby described his new device as â€Å"a body of semiconductor material wherein all the components of the electronic circuit are completely integrated. † [3] Kilby won the 2000 Nobel Prize in Physics for his part of the invention of the integrated circuit. [4] Robert Noyce also came up with his own idea of an integrated circuit half a year later than Kilby. Noyces chip solved many practical problems that Kilbys had not. Noyces chip, made at Fairchild Semiconductor, was made of silicon, whereas Kilbys chip was made of germanium. Early developments of the integrated circuit go back to 1949, when the German engineer Werner Jacobi (Siemens AG) filed a patent for an integrated-circuit-like semiconductor amplifying device [5] showing five transistors on a common substrate arranged in a 2-stage amplifier arrangement. Jacobi discloses small and cheap hearing aids as typical industrial applications of his patent. A commercial use of his patent has not been reported. A precursor idea to the IC was to create small ceramic squares (wafers), each one containing a single miniaturized component. Components could then be integrated and wired into a bidimensional or tridimensional compact grid. This idea, which looked very promising in 1957, was proposed to the US Army by Jack Kilby, and led to the short-lived Micromodule Program (similar to 1951s Project Tinkertoy). [6] However, as the project was gaining momentum, Kilby came up with a new, revolutionary design: the IC. Robert Noyce credited Kurt Lehovec of Sprague Electric for the principle of p-n junction isolation caused by the action of a biased p-n junction (the diode) as a key concept behind the IC. [7] See: Other variations of vacuum tubes for precursor concepts such as the Loewe 3NF. enerations [edit] SSI, MSI and LSI The first integrated circuits contained only a few transistors. Called Small-Scale Integration (SSI), digital circuits containing transistors numbering in the tens provided a few logic gates for example, while early linear ICs such as the Plessey SL201 or the Philips TAA320 had as few as two transistors. The term Large Scale Integration was first used by IBM scientist Rolf Landauer when describing the theoretical concept, from there came the terms for SSI, MSI, VLSI, and ULSI. SSI circuits were crucial to early aerospace projects, and vice-versa. Both the Minuteman missile and Apollo program needed lightweight digital computers for their inertial guidance systems; the Apollo guidance computer led and motivated the int egrated-circuit technology[citation needed], while the Minuteman missile forced it into mass-production. These programs purchased almost all of the available integrated circuits from 1960 through 1963, and almost alone provided the demand that funded the production improvements to reduce production costs from $1000/circuit (in 1960 dollars) to merely $25/circuit (in 1963 dollars). [citation needed] They began to appear in consumer products at the turn of the decade, a typical application being FM inter-carrier sound processing in television receivers. The next step in the development of integrated circuits, taken in the late 1960s, introduced devices which contained hundreds of transistors on each chip, called Medium-Scale Integration (MSI). They were attractive economically because while they cost little more to produce than SSI devices, they allowed more complex systems to be produced using smaller circuit boards, less assembly work (because of fewer separate components), an d a number of other advantages. Further development, driven by the same economic factors, led to Large-Scale Integration (LSI) in the mid 1970s, with tens of thousands of transistors per chip. Integrated circuits such as 1K-bit RAMs, calculator chips, and the first microprocessors, that began to be manufactured in moderate quantities in the early 1970s, had under 4000 transistors. True LSI circuits, approaching 10000 transistors, began to be produced around 1974, for computer main memories and second-generation microprocessors. [edit] VLSI Main article: Very-large-scale integration [pic] [pic] Upper interconnect layers on an Intel 80486DX2 microprocessor die. The final step in the development process, starting in the 1980s and continuing through the present, was very large-scale integration (VLSI). The development started with hundreds of thousands of transistors in the early 1980s, and continues beyond several billion transistors as of 2009. There was no single breakthrough t hat allowed this increase in complexity, though many factors helped. Manufacturers moved to smaller rules and cleaner fabs, so that they could make chips with more transistors and maintain adequate yield. The path of process improvements was summarized by the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS). Design tools improved enough to make it practical to finish these designs in a reasonable time. The more energy efficient CMOS replaced NMOS and PMOS, avoiding a prohibitive increase in power consumption. Better texts such as the landmark textbook by Mead and Conway helped schools educate more designers, among other factors. In 1986 the first one megabit RAM chips were introduced, which contained more than one million transistors. Microprocessor chips passed the million transistor mark in 1989 and the billion transistor mark in 2005[8]. The trend continues largely unabated, with chips introduced in 2007 containing tens of billions of memory transistors [9]. [edit] U LSI, WSI, SOC and 3D-IC ULSI, WSI, SOC and 3D-IC To reflect further growth of the complexity, the term ULSI that stands for ultra-large-scale integration was proposed for chips of complexity of more than 1 million transistors. Wafer-scale integration (WSI) is a system of building very-large integrated circuits that uses an entire silicon wafer to produce a single super-chip. Through a combination of large size and reduced packaging, WSI could lead to dramatically reduced costs for some systems, notably massively parallel supercomputers. The name is taken from the term Very-Large-Scale Integration, the current state of the art when WSI was being developed. A system-on-a-chip (SoC or SOC) is an integrated circuit in which all the components needed for a computer or other system are included on a single chip. The design of such a device can be complex and costly, and building disparate components on a single piece of silicon may compromise the efficiency of some elements. However , these drawbacks are offset by lower manufacturing and assembly costs and by a greatly reduced power budget: because signals among the components are kept on-die, much less power is required (see Packaging). A three-dimensional integrated circuit (3D-IC) has two or more layers of active electronic components that are integrated both vertically and horizontally into a single circuit. Communication between layers uses on-die signaling, so power consumption is much lower than in equivalent separate circuits. Judicious use of short vertical wires can substantially reduce overall wire length for faster operation Advances in integrated circuits [pic] [pic] The die from an Intel 8742, an 8-bit microcontroller that includes a CPU running at 12 MHz, 128 bytes of RAM, 2048 bytes of EPROM, and I/O in the same chip. Among the most advanced integrated circuits are the microprocessors or cores, which control everything from computers to cellular phones to digital microwave ovens. Digital m emory chips and ASICs are examples of other families of integrated circuits that are important to the modern information society. While the cost of designing and developing a complex integrated circuit is quite high, when spread across typically millions of production units the individual IC cost is minimized. The performance of ICs is high because the small size allows short traces which in turn allows low power logic (such as CMOS) to be used at fast switching speeds. ICs have consistently migrated to smaller feature sizes over the years, allowing more circuitry to be packed on each chip. This increased capacity per unit area can be used to decrease cost and/or increase functionality—see Moores law which, in its modern interpretation, states that the number of transistors in an integrated circuit doubles every two years. In general, as the feature size shrinks, almost everything improves—the cost per unit and the switching power consumption go down, and the speed goes up. However, ICs with nanometer-scale devices are not without their problems, principal among which is leakage current (see subthreshold leakage for a discussion of this), although these problems are not insurmountable and will likely be solved or at least ameliorated by the introduction of high-k dielectrics. Since these speed and power consumption gains are apparent to the end user, there is fierce competition among the manufacturers to use finer geometries. This process, and the expected progress over the next few years, is well described by the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS). edit] Popularity of ICs Only a half century after their development was initiated, integrated circuits have become ubiquitous. Computers, cellular phones, and other digital appliances are now inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies. That is, modern computing, communications, manufacturing and transport systems, including the Internet, all depend on the exi stence of integrated circuits. Classification [pic] [pic] A CMOS 4000 IC in a DIP Integrated circuits can be classified into analog, digital and mixed signal (both analog and digital on the same chip). Digital integrated circuits can contain anything from one to millions of logic gates, flip-flops, multiplexers, and other circuits in a few square millimeters. The small size of these circuits allows high speed, low power dissipation, and reduced manufacturing cost compared with board-level integration. These digital ICs, typically microprocessors, DSPs, and micro controllers work using binary mathematics to process one and zero signals. Analog ICs, such as sensors, power management circuits, and operational amplifiers, work by processing continuous signals. They perform functions like amplification, active filtering, demodulation, mixing, etc. Analog ICs ease the burden on circuit designers by having expertly designed analog circuits available instead of designing a difficult a nalog circuit from scratch. ICs can also combine analog and digital circuits on a single chip to create functions such as A/D converters and D/A converters. Such circuits offer smaller size and lower cost, but must carefully account for signal interference. Manufacturing [edit] Fabrication Main article: Semiconductor fabrication [pic] [pic] Rendering of a small standard cell with three metal layers (dielectric has been removed). The sand-colored structures are metal interconnect, with the vertical pillars being contacts, typically plugs of tungsten. The reddish structures are polysilicon gates, and the solid at the bottom is the crystalline silicon bulk. [pic] [pic] Schematic structure of a CMOS chip, as built in the early 2000s. The graphic shows LDD-MISFETs on an SOI substrate with five metallization layers and solder bump for flip-chip bonding. It also shows the section for FEOL (front-end of line), BEOL (back-end of line) and first parts of back-end process. The semiconduc tors of the periodic table of the chemical elements were identified as the most likely materials for a solid state vacuum tube by researchers like William Shockley at Bell Laboratories starting in the 1930s. Starting with copper oxide, proceeding to germanium, then silicon, the materials were systematically studied in the 1940s and 1950s. Today, silicon monocrystals are the main substrate used for integrated circuits (ICs) although some III-V compounds of the periodic table such as gallium arsenide are used for specialized applications like LEDs, lasers, solar cells and the highest-speed integrated circuits. It took decades to perfect methods of creating crystals without defects in the crystalline structure of the semiconducting material. Semiconductor ICs are fabricated in a layer process which includes these key process steps: †¢ Imaging †¢ Deposition †¢ Etching The main process steps are supplemented by doping and cleaning. Mono-crystal silicon wafers (or for sp ecial applications, silicon on sapphire or gallium arsenide wafers) are used as the substrate. Photolithography is used to mark different areas of the substrate to be doped or to have polysilicon, insulators or metal (typically aluminium) tracks deposited on them. Integrated circuits are composed of many overlapping layers, each defined by photolithography, and normally shown in different colors. Some layers mark where various dopants are diffused into the substrate (called diffusion layers), some define where additional ions are implanted (implant layers), some define the conductors (polysilicon or metal layers), and some define the connections between the conducting layers (via or contact layers). All components are constructed from a specific combination of these layers. In a self-aligned CMOS process, a transistor is formed wherever the gate layer (polysilicon or metal) crosses a diffusion layer. †¢ Capacitive structures, in form very much like the parallel conducting plate s of a traditional electrical capacitor, are formed according to the area of the plates, with insulating material between the plates. Capacitors of a wide range of sizes are common on ICs. †¢ Meandering stripes of varying lengths are sometimes used to form on-chip resistors, though most logic circuits do not need any resistors. The ratio of the length of the resistive structure to its width, combined with its sheet resistivity, determines the resistance. †¢ More rarely, inductive structures can be built as tiny on-chip coils, or simulated by gyrators. Since a CMOS device only draws current on the transition between logic states, CMOS devices consume much less current than bipolar devices. A random access memory is the most regular type of integrated circuit; the highest density devices are thus memories; but even a microprocessor will have memory on the chip. (See the regular array structure at the bottom of the first image. Although the structures are intricate  œ with widths which have been shrinking for decades – the layers remain much thinner than the device widths. The layers of material are fabricated much like a photographic process, although light waves in the visible spectrum cannot be used to expose a layer of material, as they would be too large for the features. Thus photons of higher frequencies (typically ultraviolet) are used to create the patterns for each layer. Because each feature is so small, electron microscopes are essential tools for a process engineer who might be debugging a fabrication process. Each device is tested before packaging using automated test equipment (ATE), in a process known as wafer testing, or wafer probing. The wafer is then cut into rectangular blocks, each of which is called a die. Each good die (plural dice, dies, or die) is then connected into a package using aluminium (or gold) bond wires which are welded and/or Thermosonic Bonded to pads, usually found around the edge of the die. Aft er packaging, the devices go through final testing on the same or similar ATE used during wafer probing. Test cost can account for over 25% of the cost of fabrication on lower cost products, but can be negligible on low yielding, larger, and/or higher cost devices. As of 2005, a fabrication facility (commonly known as a semiconductor lab) costs over a billion US Dollars to construct[10], because much of the operation is automated. The most advanced processes employ the following techniques: †¢ The wafers are up to 300  mm in diameter (wider than a common dinner plate). †¢ Use of 65 nanometer or smaller chip manufacturing process. Intel, IBM, NEC, and AMD are using 45 nanometers for their CPU chips. IBM and AMD are in development of a 45  nm process using immersion lithography. †¢ Copper interconnects where copper wiring replaces aluminium for interconnects. †¢ Low-K dielectric insulators. †¢ Silicon on insulator (SOI) †¢ Strained silicon in a process used by IBM known as strained silicon directly on insulator (SSDOI) Packaging Main article: Integrated circuit packaging [pic] [pic] Early USSR made integrated circuit The earliest integrated circuits were packaged in ceramic flat packs, which continued to be used by the military for their reliability and small size for many years. Commercial circuit packaging quickly moved to the dual in-line package (DIP), first in ceramic and later in plastic. In the 1980s pin counts of VLSI circuits exceeded the practical limit for DIP packaging, leading to pin grid array (PGA) and leadless chip carrier (LCC) packages. Surface mount packaging appeared in the early 1980s and became popular in the late 1980s, using finer lead pitch with leads formed as either gull-wing or J-lead, as exemplified by small-outline integrated circuit a carrier which occupies an area about 30 – 50% less than an equivalent DIP, with a typical thickness that is 70% less. This package has gull wing l eads protruding from the two long sides and a lead spacing of 0. 050  inches. In the late 1990s, PQFP and TSOP packages became the most common for high pin count devices, though PGA packages are still often used for high-end microprocessors. Intel and AMD are currently transitioning from PGA packages on high-end microprocessors to land grid array (LGA) packages. Ball grid array (BGA) packages have existed since the 1970s. Flip-chip Ball Grid Array packages, which allow for much higher pin count than other package types, were developed in the 1990s. In an FCBGA package the die is mounted upside-down (flipped) and connects to the package balls via a package substrate that is similar to a printed-circuit board rather than by wires. FCBGA packages allow an array of input-output signals (called Area-I/O) to be distributed over the entire die rather than being confined to the die periphery. Traces out of the die, through the package, and into the printed circuit board have very diffe rent electrical properties, compared to on-chip signals. They require special design techniques and need much more electric power than signals confined to the chip itself. When multiple dies are put in one package, it is called SiP, for System In Package. When multiple dies are combined on a small substrate, often ceramic, its called an MCM, or Multi-Chip Module. The boundary between a big MCM and a small printed circuit board is sometimes fuzzy. [edit] Chip labeling and manufacture date Most integrated circuits large enough to include identifying information include four common sections: the manufacturers name or logo, the part number, a part production batch number and/or serial number, and a four-digit code that identifies when the chip was manufactured. Extremely small surface mount technology parts often bear only a number used in a manufacturers lookup table to find the chip characteristics. The manufacturing date is commonly represented as a two-digit year followed by a two-digit week code, such that a part bearing the code 8341 was manufactured in week 41 of 1983, or approximately in October 1983. Packaging Main article: Integrated circuit packaging [pic] [pic] Early USSR made integrated circuit The earliest integrated circuits were packaged in ceramic flat packs, which continued to be used by the military for their reliability and small size for many years. Commercial circuit packaging quickly moved to the dual in-line package (DIP), first in ceramic and later in plastic. In the 1980s pin counts of VLSI circuits exceeded the practical limit for DIP packaging, leading to pin grid array (PGA) and leadless chip carrier (LCC) packages. Surface mount packaging appeared in the early 1980s and became popular in the late 1980s, using finer lead pitch with leads formed as either gull-wing or J-lead, as exemplified by small-outline integrated circuit a carrier which occupies an area about 30 – 50% less than an equivalent DIP, with a typical thi ckness that is 70% less. This package has gull wing leads protruding from the two long sides and a lead spacing of 0. 050  inches. In the late 1990s, PQFP and TSOP packages became the most common for high pin count devices, though PGA packages are still often used for high-end microprocessors. Intel and AMD are currently transitioning from PGA packages on high-end microprocessors to land grid array (LGA) packages. Ball grid array (BGA) packages have existed since the 1970s. Flip-chip Ball Grid Array packages, which allow for much higher pin count than other package types, were developed in the 1990s. In an FCBGA package the die is mounted upside-down (flipped) and connects to the package balls via a package substrate that is similar to a printed-circuit board rather than by wires. FCBGA packages allow an array of input-output signals (called Area-I/O) to be distributed over the entire die rather than being confined to the die periphery. Traces out of the die, through the pac kage, and into the printed circuit board have very different electrical properties, compared to on-chip signals. They require special design techniques and need much more electric power than signals confined to the chip itself. When multiple dies are put in one package, it is called SiP, for System In Package. When multiple dies are combined on a small substrate, often ceramic, its called an MCM, or Multi-Chip Module. The boundary between a big MCM and a small printed circuit board is sometimes fuzzy. [edit] Chip labeling and manufacture date Most integrated circuits large enough to include identifying information include four common sections: the manufacturers name or logo, the part number, a part production batch number and/or serial number, and a four-digit code that identifies when the chip was manufactured. Extremely small surface mount technology parts often bear only a number used in a manufacturers lookup table to find the chip characteristics. The manufacturing date i s commonly represented as a two-digit year followed by a two-digit week code, such that a part bearing the code 8341 was manufactured in week 41 of 1983, or approximately in October 1983. Legal protection of semiconductor chip layouts Main article: Semiconductor Chip Protection Act of 1984 Prior to 1984, it was not necessarily illegal to produce a competing chip with an identical layout. As the legislative history for the Semiconductor Chip Protection Act of 1984, or SCPA, explained, patent and copyright protection for chip layouts, or topographies, were largely unavailable. This led to considerable complaint by U. S. chip manufacturers—notably, Intel, which took the lead in seeking legislation, along with the Semiconductor Industry Association (SIA)against what they termed chip piracy. A 1984 addition to US law, the SCPA, made all so-called mask works (i. e. , chip topographies) protectable if registered with the U. S. Copyright Office. Similar rules apply in most oth er countries that manufacture ICs. (This is a simplified explanation see SCPA for legal details. ) [edit] Other developments In the 1980s, programmable integrated circuits were developed. These devices contain circuits whose logical function and connectivity can be programmed by the user, rather than being fixed by the integrated circuit manufacturer. This allows a single chip to be programmed to implement different LSI-type functions such as logic gates, adders and registers. Current devices named FPGAs (Field Programmable Gate Arrays) can now implement tens of thousands of LSI circuits in parallel and operate up to 550  MHz. The techniques perfected by the integrated circuits industry over the last three decades have been used to create microscopic machines, known as MEMS. These devices are used in a variety of commercial and military applications. Example commercial applications include DLP projectors, inkjet printers, and accelerometers used to deploy automobile airbags. In the past, radios could not be fabricated in the same low-cost processes as microprocessors. But since 1998, a large number of radio chips have been developed using CMOS processes. Examples include Intels DECT cordless phone, or Atheross 802. 11 card. Future developments seem to follow the multi-core multi-microprocessor paradigm, already used by the Intel and AMD dual-core processors. Intel recently unveiled a prototype, not for commercial sale chip that bears a staggering 80 microprocessors. Each core is capable of handling its own task independently of the others. This is in response to the heat-versus-speed limit that is about to be reached using existing transistor technology. This design provides a new challenge to chip programming. Parallel programming languages such as the open-source X10 programming language are designed to assist with this task. [11] Silicon labelling and graffiti To allow identification during production most silicon chips will have a serial number in one corner. It is also common to add the manufactuers logo. Ever since ICs were created, some chip designers have used the silicon surface area for surreptitious, non-functional images or words. These are sometimes referred to as Chip Art, Silicon Art, Silicon Graffiti or Silicon Doodling. [edit] Key industrial and academic data |[pic] |The lists in this article may contain items that are not notable, encyclopedic, or helpful. Please help out by removing| | |such elements and incorporating appropriate items into the main body of the article. (January 2008) | [edit] Notable ICs †¢ The 555 common multivibrator sub-circuit (common in electronic timing circuits) †¢ The 741 operational amplifier †¢ 7400 series TTL logic building blocks 4000 series, the CMOS counterpart to the 7400 series (see also: 74HC00 series) †¢ Intel 4004, the worlds first microprocessor, which led to the famous 8080 CPU and then the IBM PCs 8088, 80286, 486 etc. †¢ The MOS Technology 6502 and Zilog Z80 microprocessors, used in many home computers of the early 1980s †¢ The Motorola 6800 series of computer-related chips, leading to the 68000 and 88000 series (used in some Apple computers). [edit] Manufacturers For a list of microchip manufacturers, see List of integrated circuit manufacturers. VLSI conferences ICM – IEEE International Conference on Microelectronics †¢ ISSCC – IEEE International Solid-State Circuits Conference †¢ CICC – IEEE Custom Integrated Circuit Conference †¢ ISCAS – IEEE International Symposium on Circuits and Systems †¢ VLSI – IEEE International Conference on VLSI Design †¢ DAC – Design Automation Conference †¢ ICCAD – International Conference on Computer-Aided Design †¢ ESSCIRC – European Solid-State Circuits Conference †¢ ISLPED – International Symposium on Low Power Electronics and Design †¢ ISPD – International Symposi um on Physical Design ISQED – International Symposium on Quality Electronic Design †¢ DATE – Design Automation and Test in Europe †¢ ICCD – International Conference on Computer Design †¢ IEDM – IEEE International Electron Devices Meeting †¢ GLSVLSI – IEEE Great Lakes Symposium on VLSI †¢ ASP-DAC – Asia and South Pacific Design Automation Conference †¢ MWSCAS – IEEE Midwest Symposium on Circuits and Systems †¢ ICSVLSI – IEEE Computer Society Annual Symposium on VLSI †¢ IEEE Symposia on VLSI Circuits and Technology [edit] VLSI journals ED – IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices †¢ EDL – IEEE Electron Device Letters †¢ CAD – IEEE Transactions on Computer-Aided Design of Integrated Circuits and Systems, IEEE web site for this journal †¢ JSSC – IEEE Journal of Solid-State Circuits †¢ VLSI – IEEE Transactions on Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) Systems †¢ CAS II – IEEE Transactions on Circuits and Systems II: Analog and Digital Signal Processing †¢ SM – IEEE Transactions on Semiconductor Manufacturing †¢ SSE – Solid-State Electronics Don’t waste time! 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Software Innovation Development Free Essays

The aim of this qualitative, exploratory multiple-case study is to evaluate strategies that leaders use to improve software innovation development, quality and risk management. The research question for this study is as follow: What strategies do you use to encourage software innovation development? Interview Questions Participants will be asked to respond to the following questions: What software innovation factors do you use to improve quality in your company? What strategies have you used to improve software quality in the IT field? Which of these strategies have you implemented to improve software quality in the firm? Which of the strategies assist to enhance software quality? Which of these strategies did not assist in the improvement of software quality? Why did these strategies fail to improve software quality? What else would you like to include that we did not cover? Researchers may choose to employ data analysis to instill rigor in the qualitative research method and their process (Yin, 2018; Saunders et al., 2015). We will write a custom essay sample on Software Innovation Development or any similar topic only for you Order Now Saunders et al. (2015), Yin (2018) and Boblin, Ireland, Kirkpatrick and Robertson (2013) posit that case studies may be investigative, descriptive, or explanatory, or may combine more than one methods. Therefore, a qualitative case study involves examination of single or multiple events (Saunders et al., 2015; Yin, 2018; Boblin et al., 2013). In performing this study, I will use multiple-qualitative design in exploring software innovation development, quality, and risk management, and then proceed with data collection. My chosen data analysis method for this case study was triangulation. Yin (2018) and Heale and Forbes (2013) posit that triangulation may be take place when multiple methods are employed to collect data which involve interviews, journal, observations, and other forms of records. Burua and Anderson posit that triangulation may also incorporate data from interview questions, data collected from firm brochures, pamphlets, websites and other company publications such as prospectuses. Scholars and researchers, (Yin, 2018; Saunders, al., 2015; Gorgens-Ekermans Herbert, 2013; Fusch Ness, 2015; Anyan, 2013) contend that in analysis stage of the research, researchers take steps to refine the codes, reconfigure the codes or completely remove some codes when necessary. Anyan (2013), Woods, Paulus, Atkins and MacKlin (2015); Paulus, Woods, Atkins Macklin (2017) and Fusch Ness (2015) encourage researchers to generate and refine data until they can no longer identify new codes for the research study. In this study I continued to assemble, and refine codes until new distinct code can no longer be obtained. Consequently, all discrepancies were identified and verified until I reached saturation point. I continued to code transcript until I reached data saturation point. Consequently, I investigated any differences between in my codes until saturation point was reached. Researchers have used coding to uncover similarity or themes within interview transcripts and include data to reach data saturation point, ensure reliability, validity, credibility and high confidence level. I used an alpha-numeric identifier that is capable of identifying eight participants using letter and number. In this research data, the alpha-numeric identifiers identified â€Å"P† for participants and the number was 1 through 8 to identify the main themes that emerge from the interview process. How to cite Software Innovation Development, Papers

Entertainment and Mass Media free essay sample

However, the term is often used in the mass media to describe the mass media companies that control the distribution and manufacture of mass media entertainment. In the popular parlance, the term show biz in particular connotes the commercially popular performing arts, especially musical theatre, comedy, film, and music. It applies to every aspect of entertainment including cinema, television, radio, theatre and music. Entertainment is something that holds the attention and interest of an audience, or gives pleasure and delight. It can be an idea or a task, but is more likely to be one of the activities or events that have developed over thousands of years specifically for the purpose of keeping an audiences attention. [1] Although peoples attention is held by different things, because individuals have different preferences in entertainment, most forms are recognisable and familiar. Storytelling, music, drama, dance, and different kinds of performance exist in all cultures, were supported in royal courts, developed into sophisticated forms and over time became available to all citizens. We will write a custom essay sample on Entertainment and Mass Media or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The process has been accelerated in modern times by an entertainment industry which records and sells entertainment products. Entertainment evolves and can be adapted to suit any scale, ranging from an individual who chooses a private entertainment from a now enormous array of pre-recorded products; to a banquet adapted for two; to any size or type of party, with appropriate music and dance; to performances intended for thousands; and even for a global audience. The experience of being entertained has come to be strongly associated with amusement, so that one common understanding of the idea is fun and laughter, although many entertainments have a serious purpose. This may be the case in the various forms of ceremony, celebration, religious festival, or satire for example. Hence, there is the possibility that what appears as entertainment may also be a means of achieving insight or intellectual growth. An important aspect of entertainment is the audience, which turns a private recreation or leisure activity into entertainment. The audience may have a passive role, as in the case of persons watching a play, opera, television show, or film; or the audience role may be active, as in the case of games, where the participant/audience roles may be routinely reversed. Entertainment can be public or private, involving formal, scripted performance, as in the case of theatre or concerts; or unscripted and spontaneous, as in the case of childrens games. Most forms of entertainment have persisted over many centuries, evolving due to changes in culture, technology, and fashion. Films and video games, for example, although they use newer media, continue to tell stories, present drama, and play music. Festivals devoted to music, film, or dance allow audiences to be entertained over a number of consecutive days. Some activities that once were considered entertaining, particularly public punishments, have been removed from the public arena. Others, such as fencing or archery, once necessary skills for some, have become serious sports and even professions for the participants, at the same time developing into entertainment with wider appeal for bigger audiences. In the same way, other necessary skills, such as cooking, have developed into performances among professionals, staged as global competitions and then broadcast for entertainment. What is entertainment for one group or individual may be regarded as work by another. The familiar forms of entertainment have the capacity to cross over different media and have demonstrated a seemingly unlimited potential for creative remix. This has ensured the continuity and longevity of many themes, images, and structures.